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Information on EC 6.2.1.1 - acetate-CoA ligase
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6.2.1.1 acetate-CoA ligaseIUBMB Comments
Also acts on propanoate and propenoate.
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Word Map
- 6.2.1.1
- synthetases
- peroxisomal
- phospholipid
- acyltransferase
- palmitate
- cholesterol
- triglyceride
-
beta-oxidation
-
arachidonic
- carnitine
- triacylglycerols
- triacsin
-
medium-chain
- glyoxylate
-
oleic
- palmitoyl-coa
-
6.2.1.3
-
lipogenesis
- oleate
-
lipogenic
-
acetogenic
-
codhs
-
acsls
- phosphotransacetylase
-
hypolipidemic
- propionyl-coa
- fadd
-
wood-ljungdahl
- thermoaceticum
- coash
- arachidonoyl-coa
-
moorella
-
atp-citrate
- butyryl-coa
- oleoyl-coa
-
glucose-limited
- acaca
- corrinoid
-
1-14cacetate
- adrenoleukodystrophy
-
vlcfas
-
very-long-chain
-
fatps
- sn-glycerol-3-phosphate
-
arachnoid
-
reacylation
- acetoacetyl-coa
-
extradural
-
alpha2beta2
- myristoyl-coa
- analysis
- medicine
The enzyme appears in viruses and cellular organisms
Synonyms
ACAS, ACD, AceCS, AceCS1, AceCS2, Acetate thiokinase, Acetate--CoA ligase, acetate:CoA ligase (AMP-forming), Acetic thiokinase, Acetyl activating enzyme, 
more
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SYNONYM 
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY 
LITERATURE
ACAS
AceCS
-
-
-
-
AceCS1
AceCS2
Acetate thiokinase
-
-
-
-
Acetate--CoA ligase
-
-
-
-
acetate:CoA ligase (AMP-forming)
Acetic thiokinase
-
-
-
-
Acetyl activating enzyme
-
-
-
-
Acetyl CoA ligase
-
-
-
-
Acetyl CoA synthase
-
-
-
-
acetyl CoA synthetase
Acetyl coenzyme A synthetase
Acetyl-CoA synthase
Acetyl-CoA synthetase
acetyl-CoA synthetase 2
Acetyl-coenzyme A synthase
acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase
ACS
ACS1
Acs1p
ACS2
Acs2p
acsA1
AcsA2
AcsA3
ACSS2
Acyl-activating enzyme
-
-
-
-
Acyl-CoA synthetase
adenosine monophosphate-forming acetyl-CoA synthetase
AMP-dependent ACS
AMP-forming acetyl coenzyme A synthetase
AMP-forming acetyl-CoA synthetase
AMP-forming CoA ligase
carbon monoxide dehydrogenase/acety-coenzyme A synthase
-
bifunctional enzyme
MT-ACS1
Mthe_1194
SeAcs
Short chain fatty acyl-CoA synthetase
-
-
-
-
Short-chain acyl-coenzyme A synthetase
-
-
-
-
Synthetase, acetyl coenzyme A
-
-
-
-
additional information
Acetyl coenzyme A synthetase
-
-
-
-
Acetyl-CoA synthase
-
-
-
-
Acetyl-CoA synthetase
-
-
-
-
Acetyl-coenzyme A synthase
-
-
-
-
ACS
-
-
-
-
adenosine monophosphate-forming acetyl-CoA synthetase
-
additional information
-
acetyl-CoA synthase is a subunit of the bifunctional CO dehydrogenase/acetyl-CoA synthase, CODH/ACS, complex
additional information
-
ACD belongs to the protein superfamily of nucleoside diphosphate-forming acyl-CoA synthetases
additional information
-
acetyl-CoA synthetase belongs to the superfamily of adenylate-forming enzymes, whose three-dimensional structures are analogous to one another
additional information
-
Acs is a member of the broadly distributed AMP-forming acyl-CoA synthetase family of enzymes
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REACTION
REACTION DIAGRAM
COMMENTARY
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
LITERATURE
ATP + acetate + CoA = AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
ordered bi uni uni bi ping-pong mechanism with ordered substrate addition and release
-
ATP + acetate + CoA = AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
reaction mechanism involving ([Fe4S4]2+ Nip2+ Nid2+) cluster
-
ATP + acetate + CoA = AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
the ACD reaction follows a four-step mechanism including transient phosphorylation of two active site histidine residues, structure and reaction mechanism of ACD
-
ATP + acetate + CoA = AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
-
-
-
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REACTION TYPE
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
Acid-thiol ligation
-
-
-
-
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PATHWAY SOURCE
PATHWAYS
KEGG
MetaCyc
acetate conversion to acetyl-CoA, adlupulone and adhumulone biosynthesis, chitin deacetylation, cis-geranyl-CoA degradation, colupulone and cohumulone biosynthesis, ethanol degradation II, ethanol degradation III, ethanol degradation IV, L-isoleucine biosynthesis V, lupulone and humulone biosynthesis
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SYSTEMATIC NAME
IUBMB Comments
acetate:CoA ligase (AMP-forming)
Also acts on propanoate and propenoate.
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CAS REGISTRY NUMBER
COMMENTARY
9012-31-1
-
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SUBSTRATE
PRODUCT
REACTION DIAGRAM
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
(Substrate)
(Substrate)
LITERATURE
(Substrate)
(Substrate)
COMMENTARY
(Product)
(Product)
LITERATURE
(Product)
(Product)
Reversibility
r=reversible
ir=irreversible
?=not specified
r=reversible
ir=irreversible
?=not specified
ATP + 2-methylvalerate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + 2-methylvaleryl-CoA
-
-
-
-
?
ATP + 3-bromopropanoate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + 3-bromopropanoyl-CoA
-
-
-
-
?
ATP + 3-chloropropanoate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + 3-chloropropanoyl-CoA
-
-
-
-
?
ATP + 3-methylvalerate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + 3-methylvaleryl-CoA
-
mutant enzyme W416G catalyzes the reaction, no activity with wild-type enzyme
-
-
?
ATP + 4-methylvalerate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + 4-methylvaleryl-CoA
-
mutant enzyme W416G catalyzes the reaction, no activity with wild-type enzyme
-
-
?
ATP + formate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + formyl-CoA
-
27% of the activity with acetate
-
-
?
ATP + heptanoate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + heptanoyl-CoA
-
mutant enzyme W416G catalyzes the reaction, no activity with wild-type enzyme
-
-
?
ATP + isobutyrate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + isobutyryl-CoA
-
28% of the activity with acetate
-
-
?
ATP + methacrylic acid + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + methacryloyl-CoA
-
-
-
-
?
ATP + octanoate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + octanoyl-CoA
-
mutant enzyme W416G catalyzes the reaction, no activity with wild-type enzyme
-
-
?
ATP + pentanoate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + pentanoyl-CoA
-
6.7% of the activity relative to acetate
-
-
?
ATP + potassium acetate + CoA
AMP + acetyl-CoA + potassium diphosphate
-
-
-
?
CheY + acetyl-CoA + ATP
acetyl-CheY + CoA + AMP + diphosphate
-
CheY is the the excitatory response regulator in the chemotaxis system of Escherichia coli, acetyl-CoA synthetase-catalyzed transfer of acetyl groups from acetate to CheY and autocatalyzed transfer from AcCoA, mechanism, overview
-
-
?
ADP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
20% of the activity relative to ATP
-
-
?
ADP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
37% of the activity relative to ATP
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
?
-
enzyme plays an important role in the oxidative part of the aceticlastic reaction
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
?
-
enzyme form Acs1p is primarily responsible for acetate activation during gluconeogenic growth. Enzyme form Acs2p is likely to be the major producer of cytosolic acetyl-CoA
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
highly specific for ATP
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
gene acs encoding the enzyme is regulated by quorum sensing, and acs regulation plays a role in symbiosis, overview
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
no relationship between the enzyme level and the capacity of the plants to incorporate CO2 into labeled fatty acids. Very limited role of the enzyme in the biosynthesis of lipids
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
acetate-CoA ligase is a key enzyme for conversion of acetate to acetyl-CoA
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
AF-ACS2 has 2.3fold higher affinity and catalytic efficiency with acetate than with propionate. Enzyme shows a strong preference for ATP versus CTP, GTP, TTP, UTP, ITP or ADP, for which less than 5% activity is observed
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
neither glutathione nor pantetheine can substitute for CoA as acyl acceptor
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
enzyme is involved in pathway of acetate activation. Cells induce acs transcription, and thus the ability to assimilate acetate, in response to rising cAMP levels, falling oxygen partial pressure, and the flux of carbon through pathways associated with acetate metabolism
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
the enzyme activates acetate so that it can be used for lipid synthesis or for energy generation. The acetyl-CoA synthetase mRNA, and hence the ability of cells to activate acetate, is regulated by sterol regulatory element-binding proteins in parallel with fatty acid synthesis in animal cells
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
AceCS2 is reversibly acetylated at Lys642 in the active site of the enzyme. A mammalian sirtuin directly controls the activity of a metabolic enzyme by means of reversible lysine acetylation
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
-
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
acetate-CoA ligase is a key enzyme for conversion of acetate to acetyl-CoA
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
MT-ACS1 is limited to acetate and propionate as acyl substrates. MT-ACS1 has nearly 11fold higher affinity and 14fold higher catalytic efficiency with acetate than with propionate. Enzyme shows a strong preference for ATP versus CTP, GTP, TTP, UTP, ITP or ADP, for which less than 5% activity is observed
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
important role for motif III (498YTAGD502) in catalysis. The highly conserved Tyr in the first position may play a key role in active-site architecture through interaction with a highly conserved active-site Gln. The invariant Asp in the fifth position plays a critical role in ATP binding and catalysis through interaction with the 2'- and 3'-OH groups of the ribose moiety of ATP
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
ATP in form of MgATP2-
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
-
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
ATP in form of MgATP2-
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
activation of acetate in energy metabolism
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
activity with propionate is 1% compared to the reactivity with acetate. Butyrate does not serve as a substrate
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
activation of acetate in energy metabolism
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
activity with propionate is 1% compared to the reactivity with acetate. Butyrate does not serve as a substrate
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
-
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
the bifunctional enzyme carbon monoxide dehydrogenase/acetyl-coenzyme A synthase is a key enzyme in the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway of carbon fixation
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
proposed mechanism of the bifunctional enzyme carbon monoxide dehydrogenase/acetyl-coenzyme A synthase
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
the ACS reaction is catalyzed at the alpha-subunit A-cluster, an [Fe4S4] cubane bridged to a dinickel [NipNid] subcomponent, overview
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
reaction of acetylated ACS with CoA and Fd-II, a step of the catalytic cycle in which the acetylated ACS reacts with CoA to form acetyl-CoA
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
lipogenic enzyme, gene is highly induced by SREBP-1a, SREBP-1c and SREBP-2. The enzyme might also play an important role in basic cellular energy metabolism
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
specific for acetate, no activity with other short-chain fatty acids
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
-
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
acetyl-CoA synthetase from Pseudomonas putida U is the only acyl-CoA activating enzyme induced by acetate in this bacterium
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
formation of enzyme-bound acetyl phosphate and enzyme phosphorylation at His257alpha, respectively. The phosphoryl group is transferred from the His257alpha to ADP via transient phosphorylation of a second conserved histidine residue in the beta-subunit, His71beta
-
-
ir
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
-
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
-
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
-
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
-
-
-
?
ATP + acrylate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acryloyl-CoA
-
-
-
-
?
ATP + butyrate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + butyryl-CoA
-
mutant enzymes I312A and W416G catalyzes the reaction, no activity with wild-type enzyme
-
-
?
ATP + butyrate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + butyryl-CoA
-
mutant enzymes I312A and W416G catalyzes the reaction, no activity with wild-type enzyme
-
-
?
ATP + butyrate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + butyryl-CoA
-
20% of the activity relative to acetate
-
-
?
ATP + butyrate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + butyryl-CoA
26% of the activity with acetyl-CoA
-
-
?
ATP + butyrate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + butyryl-CoA
-
25% of the activity with acetate
-
-
?
ATP + fluoroacetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + fluoroacetyl-CoA
-
-
-
-
?
ATP + hexanoate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + hexanoyl-CoA
-
mutant enzyme W416G catalyzes the reaction, no activity with wild-type enzyme
-
-
?
ATP + hexanoate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + hexanoyl-CoA
-
mutant enzyme W416G catalyzes the reaction, no activity with wild-type enzyme
-
-
?
ATP + propanoate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + propanoyl-CoA
-
very poor activity
-
-
?
ATP + propanoate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + propanoyl-CoA
-
30% of the activity with acetate
-
-
?
ATP + propanoate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + propanoyl-CoA
-
5% of the activity relative to acetate
-
-
?
ATP + propanoate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + propanoyl-CoA
-
48% of the activity relative to acetate
-
-
?
ATP + propanoate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + propanoyl-CoA
-
118% of the activity with acetate
-
-
?
ATP + propanoate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + propanoyl-CoA
-
-
-
-
?
ATP + propionate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + propionyl-CoA
-
AF-ACS2 has 2.3fold higher affinity and catalytic efficiency with acetate than with propionate. Enzyme shows a strong preference for ATP versus CTP, GTP, TTP, UTP, ITP or ADP, for which less than 5% activity is observed
-
-
?
ATP + propionate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + propionyl-CoA
-
-
-
-
?
ATP + propionate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + propionyl-CoA
MT-ACS1 is limited to acetate and propionate as acyl substrates. MT-ACS1 has nearly 11fold higher affinity and 14fold higher catalytic efficiency with acetate than with propionate. Enzyme shows a strong preference for ATP versus CTP, GTP, TTP, UTP, ITP or ADP, for which less than 5% activity is observed
-
-
?
ATP + propionate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + propionyl-CoA
-
-
-
-
?
ATP + propionate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + propionyl-CoA
55% of the activity with acetyl-CoA
-
-
?
ATP + propionate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + propionyl-CoA
-
aerobic taurine dissimilation via acetate kinase and acetate-CoA ligase. Acetate-CoA ligase operates at the end of the pathway
-
-
?
ATP + propionate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + propionyl-CoA
-
aerobic taurine dissimilation via acetate kinase and acetate-CoA ligase. Acetate-CoA ligase operates at the end of the pathway
-
-
?
ATP + propionate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + propionyl-CoA
-
nucleocytosolic acetyl-coenzyme a synthetase is required for histone acetylation and global transcription. Acs2p is the major acetyl-CoA source for HATs in glucose
-
-
?
ATP + sodium acetate + CoA
AMP + acetyl-CoA + sodium diphosphate
-
-
-
?
ATP + sodium acetate + CoA
AMP + acetyl-CoA + sodium diphosphate
-
-
-
-
?
ATP + valerate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + valeryl-CoA
-
mutant enzyme W416G catalyzes the reaction, no activity with wild-type enzyme
-
-
?
ATP + valerate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + valeryl-CoA
8% of the activity with acetyl-CoA
-
-
?
dATP + acetate + CoA
dAMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
70% of the activity relative to ATP
-
?
dATP + acetate + CoA
dAMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
30% of the activity relative to ATP
-
-
?
dATP + acetate + CoA
dAMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
AceCS2 plays a role in the production of energy under ketogenic conditions, such as starvation and diabetes. Acetyl-CoAs produced by AceCS2 are utilized mainly for oxidation
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
metabolic connection between acetate utilization and cell density
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
role of ACS in destroying fermentative intermediates
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
the enzyme can catalyze the activation to their CoA thioesters of some of the side-chain precursors required in Penicillium chrysogenum and Aspergillus nidulans for the production of several penicillins
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
the acetyltransferase enzyme, AcuA, controls the activity of the acetyl coenzyme A synthetase, AcsA, by acetylating residue Lys549, overview
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
enzyme catalyzes acetate-dependent ATP-diphosphate exchange
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
acetate thiokinase is not involved in autotrophic CO2 fixation
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
CODH/ACS is a bifunctional enzyme that is responsible for the reduction of CO2 to CO and subsequent assembly of acetyl-CoA, as part of the Wood-Ljungdahl carbon fixation pathway, the enzyme is a key player in the global carbon cycle
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
bifunctional Ni-Fe-S containing ACS/CODH, although alpha and beta subunits catalyze separate reactions, they interact functionally when CO2 is used as a substrate in the synthesis of acetyl-CoA
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
the enzyme is a bifunctional carbon monoxide dehydrogenase/acetyl-CoA synthase, Moorella thermoacetica CODH/ACS contains a very long enzyme channel to allow for intermolecular CO transport, mechanism and reaction steps, overview. Structure-function analysis in comparison to monofunctional Acs, overview
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
3'-dephospho-CoASH analogues with a phosphodiester bond are not capable of accepting acetate
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
the enzyme can activate many other molecules to acyl-CoA derivatives: hexanoate, 3-hexenoate, heptanoate, octanoate, 3-octenoate, phenylacetate, 2-thiophene acetate, 3-thiophene acetate
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
the enzyme can catalyze the activation to their CoA thioesters of some of the side-chain precursors required in Penicillium chrysogenum and Aspergillus nidulans for the production of several penicillins
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
enzyme catalyzes propanoate-dependent ATP-diphosphate exchange
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
reaction mechanism of ATP-diphosphate exchange is ordered, ATP is the first substrate to react with the enzyme, and some form of diphosphate is the first product released
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
enzyme catalyzes acetate-dependent ATP-diphosphate exchange
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
the enzyme performs arsenolysis, the alpha-subunit alone also catalyzes arsenolysis, overview
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
may contribute to the adenosine 5'-tetraphosphate synthesis and adenosine 5'-pentaphosphate synthesis during yeast sporulation
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
the enzyme also forms a carbon-nitrogen bond, reaction of EC 6.3.1 acid-ammonia (or amide) ligase, i.e. amide synthase, and EC 6.3.2 acid-amino acid ligase, i.e. peptide synthase, comprising the amino group of the cysteine and the carboxyl group of the acid, overview
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
activity determination in a coupled assay with myokinase, pyruvate kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase: SeAcs first converts acetate, CoA, and ATP to acetyl-CoA and AMP. Then, myokinase converts AMP to ADP. Pyruvate kinase converts ADP and phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate and ATP. Finally, lactate dehydrogenase reduces pyruvate and oxidizes NADH to NAD+
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
Salmonella enterica G2466
-
activity determination in a coupled assay with myokinase, pyruvate kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase: SeAcs first converts acetate, CoA, and ATP to acetyl-CoA and AMP. Then, myokinase converts AMP to ADP. Pyruvate kinase converts ADP and phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate and ATP. Finally, lactate dehydrogenase reduces pyruvate and oxidizes NADH to NAD+
-
-
?
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NATURAL SUBSTRATE
NATURAL PRODUCT
REACTION DIAGRAM
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
(Substrate)
(Substrate)
LITERATURE
(Substrate)
(Substrate)
COMMENTARY
(Product)
(Product)
LITERATURE
(Product)
(Product)
REVERSIBILITY
r=reversible
ir=irreversible
?=not specified
r=reversible
ir=irreversible
?=not specified
CheY + acetyl-CoA + ATP
acetyl-CheY + CoA + AMP + diphosphate
-
CheY is the the excitatory response regulator in the chemotaxis system of Escherichia coli, acetyl-CoA synthetase-catalyzed transfer of acetyl groups from acetate to CheY and autocatalyzed transfer from AcCoA, mechanism, overview
-
-
?
dATP + acetate + CoA
dAMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
AceCS2 plays a role in the production of energy under ketogenic conditions, such as starvation and diabetes. Acetyl-CoAs produced by AceCS2 are utilized mainly for oxidation
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
?
-
enzyme plays an important role in the oxidative part of the aceticlastic reaction
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
?
-
enzyme form Acs1p is primarily responsible for acetate activation during gluconeogenic growth. Enzyme form Acs2p is likely to be the major producer of cytosolic acetyl-CoA
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
gene acs encoding the enzyme is regulated by quorum sensing, and acs regulation plays a role in symbiosis, overview
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
no relationship between the enzyme level and the capacity of the plants to incorporate CO2 into labeled fatty acids. Very limited role of the enzyme in the biosynthesis of lipids
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
acetate-CoA ligase is a key enzyme for conversion of acetate to acetyl-CoA
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
enzyme is involved in pathway of acetate activation. Cells induce acs transcription, and thus the ability to assimilate acetate, in response to rising cAMP levels, falling oxygen partial pressure, and the flux of carbon through pathways associated with acetate metabolism
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
the enzyme activates acetate so that it can be used for lipid synthesis or for energy generation. The acetyl-CoA synthetase mRNA, and hence the ability of cells to activate acetate, is regulated by sterol regulatory element-binding proteins in parallel with fatty acid synthesis in animal cells
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
AceCS2 is reversibly acetylated at Lys642 in the active site of the enzyme. A mammalian sirtuin directly controls the activity of a metabolic enzyme by means of reversible lysine acetylation
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
acetate-CoA ligase is a key enzyme for conversion of acetate to acetyl-CoA
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
activation of acetate in energy metabolism
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
activation of acetate in energy metabolism
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
the bifunctional enzyme carbon monoxide dehydrogenase/acetyl-coenzyme A synthase is a key enzyme in the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway of carbon fixation
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
reaction of acetylated ACS with CoA and Fd-II, a step of the catalytic cycle in which the acetylated ACS reacts with CoA to form acetyl-CoA
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
lipogenic enzyme, gene is highly induced by SREBP-1a, SREBP-1c and SREBP-2. The enzyme might also play an important role in basic cellular energy metabolism
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
-
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
acetyl-CoA synthetase from Pseudomonas putida U is the only acyl-CoA activating enzyme induced by acetate in this bacterium
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
-
-
-
?
ATP + acetate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + acetyl-CoA
-
-
-
-
?
ATP + propionate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + propionyl-CoA
-
aerobic taurine dissimilation via acetate kinase and acetate-CoA ligase. Acetate-CoA ligase operates at the end of the pathway
-
-
?
ATP + propionate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + propionyl-CoA
-
aerobic taurine dissimilation via acetate kinase and acetate-CoA ligase. Acetate-CoA ligase operates at the end of the pathway
-
-
?
ATP + propionate + CoA
AMP + diphosphate + propionyl-CoA
-
nucleocytosolic acetyl-coenzyme a synthetase is required for histone acetylation and global transcription. Acs2p is the major acetyl-CoA source for HATs in glucose
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
metabolic connection between acetate utilization and cell density
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
role of ACS in destroying fermentative intermediates
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
the enzyme can catalyze the activation to their CoA thioesters of some of the side-chain precursors required in Penicillium chrysogenum and Aspergillus nidulans for the production of several penicillins
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
the acetyltransferase enzyme, AcuA, controls the activity of the acetyl coenzyme A synthetase, AcsA, by acetylating residue Lys549, overview
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
acetate thiokinase is not involved in autotrophic CO2 fixation
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
CODH/ACS is a bifunctional enzyme that is responsible for the reduction of CO2 to CO and subsequent assembly of acetyl-CoA, as part of the Wood-Ljungdahl carbon fixation pathway, the enzyme is a key player in the global carbon cycle
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
the enzyme can catalyze the activation to their CoA thioesters of some of the side-chain precursors required in Penicillium chrysogenum and Aspergillus nidulans for the production of several penicillins
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
-
may contribute to the adenosine 5'-tetraphosphate synthesis and adenosine 5'-pentaphosphate synthesis during yeast sporulation
-
-
?
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COFACTOR
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
IMAGE
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METALS and IONS
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
Ca2+
Cd2+
-
two types of divalent metal ion requirement, 1. Mg2+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Co2+ or Ca2+ required for the formation of the enzyme-bound acetyl adenylate, 2. Ni2+, Cd2+, Fe2+ or Cu2+ required for adenylate binding
Co2+
Cu2+
-
two types of divalent metal ion requirement, 1. Mg2+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Co2+ or Ca2+ required for the formation of the enzyme-bound acetyl adenylate, 2. Ni2+, Cd2+, Fe2+ or Cu2+ required for adenylate binding
Fe2+
K+
Li+
-
activation at 5-8 mM, absolute requirement for certain monovalent cations, inhibition above 10 mM
Mg2+
Mn2+
Na+
NH4+
Ni
-
nickel-containing bimetallic site, the bifunctional enzyme carbon monoxide dehydrogenase/acetyl-coenzyme A synthase
Ni2+
Rb+
-
activates, absolute requirement for certain monovalent cations, no inhibition at high concentrations
Tris
-
activates, absolute requirement for certain monovalent cations, no inhibition at high concentrations
additional information
-
the enzyme uses seven metalloclusters in four reaction steps, overview
Ca2+
-
two types of divalent metal ion requirement, 1. Mg2+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Co2+ or Ca2+ required for the formation of the enzyme-bound acetyl adenylate, 2. Ni2+, Cd2+, Fe2+ or Cu2+ required for adenylate binding
Ca2+
-
can replace Mg2+ in activation, with 50% of the efficiency relative to MgCl2
Ca2+
-
10 mM, can replace Mg2+ in activation, with 30% of the efficiency relative to Mg2+
Ca2+
about 30% of the activation with Mg2+ or Mn2+
Co2+
-
two types of divalent metal ion requirement, 1. Mg2+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Co2+ or Ca2+ required for the formation of the enzyme-bound acetyl adenylate, 2. Ni2+, Cd2+, Fe2+ or Cu2+ required for adenylate binding
Co2+
-
can replace Mg2+ in activation, 50% as effective as MgCl2, Km for CoCl2 is 0.2 mM
Co2+
about 80% of the activation with Mg2+ or Mn2+
Fe2+
-
two types of divalent metal ion requirement, 1. Mg2+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Co2+ or Ca2+ required for the formation of the enzyme-bound acetyl adenylate, 2. Ni2+, Cd2+, Fe2+ or Cu2+ required for adenylate binding
Fe2+
-
CODH/ACS uses a Ni-Fe-S center called the C-cluster to reduce carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide and uses a second Ni-Fe-S center, called the A-cluster, to assemble acetyl-CoA from a methyl group, coenzyme A, and C-cluster-generated CO
Fe2+
-
the enzyme contains a ([Fe4S4]2+ Nip2+ Nid2+) cluster in the alpha-subunit, bifunctional Ni-Fe-S containing ACS/CODH
Fe2+
-
the enzyme contains a ([Fe4S4]2+ Nip2+ Nid2+) cluster in the alpha-subunit, exchange coupling pathway between the Sc = 1/2 [Fe4S4]1+ cluster and the SNi = 1/2 Nip 1+ involves the cysteinate that links one cluster site, previously labeled FeD, to the Ni1+, structure and spectral analysis, overview
Fe2+
-
the A-cluster of acetyl-coenzyme A synthase consists of an [Fe4S4] cubane bridged to a [NipNid] centre via C509 cysteinate. The bridging cysteinate, which can be substituted by histidine imidazole, mediates communication between the [Fe4S4] cubane and the [NipNid] centre during the synthesis of acetyl-CoA
K+
-
absolute requirement for a monovalent cation, stimulates, Km: 14.3 mM, inhibition above 0.1 M
K+
-
activates, absolute requirement for certain monovalent cations, no inhibition at high concentrations
K+
-
KCl increases the activity of the enzyme about 60% at 5 mM and 80% at 20 mM
Mg2+
-
AF-ACS2 shows strong preference for Mg2+ and Mn2+ as the divalent metal
Mg2+
-
two types of divalent metal ion requirement, 1. Mg2+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Co2+ or Ca2+ required for the formation of the enzyme-bound acetyl adenylate, 2. Ni2+, Cd2+, Fe2+ or Cu2+ required for adenylate binding
Mg2+
-
inhibition at high concentrations where the metal is present as the free ion
Mg2+
strong preference for Mg2+ and Mn2+ as the divalent metal
Mn2+
-
AF-ACS2 shows strong preference for Mg2+ and Mn2+ as the divalent metal
Mn2+
-
two types of divalent metal ion requirement, 1. Mg2+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Co2+ or Ca2+ required for the formation of the enzyme-bound acetyl adenylate, 2. Ni2+, Cd2+, Fe2+ or Cu2+ required for adenylate binding
Mn2+
strong preference for Mg2+ and Mn2+ as the divalent metal
Mn2+
-
10 mM, 38% of the activity relative to Mg2+. Progressive inactivation of the enzyme by MnCl2 is not reversible by subsequent addition of MgCl2
Na+
-
absolute requirement for a monovalent cation, poor activator, Km: 33 mM, no inhibition at higher concentrations
Na+
-
activation at 5-8 mM, absolute requirement for certain monovalent cations, inhibition above 10 mM
NH4+
-
absolute requirement for a monovalent cation, stimulates, Km: 14.3 mM, inhibition above 0.1 M
NH4+
-
activates, absolute requirement for certain monovalent cations, no inhibition at high concentrations
Ni2+
-
two types of divalent metal ion requirement, 1. Mg2+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Co2+ or Ca2+ required for the formation of the enzyme-bound acetyl adenylate, 2. Ni2+, Cd2+, Fe2+ or Cu2+ required for adenylate binding
Ni2+
about 25% of the activation with Mg2+ or Mn2+
Ni2+
-
Mössbauer and EPR spectroscopies of alpha-subunit activated with Ni2+
Ni2+
-
activates, the enzyme contains a ([Fe4S4]2+ Nip2+ Nid2+) cluster in the alpha-subunit, bifunctional Ni-Fe-S containing ACS/CODH. Upon incubation in NiCl2, the complete A-cluster assembles, and the isolated a subunit develops approximately 10% of the maximal catalytic activity relative to that of the alpha2beta2 tetramer
Ni2+
-
the enzyme contains a ([Fe4S4]2+ Nip2+ Nid2+) cluster in the alpha-subunit, exchange coupling pathway between the Sc = 1/2 [Fe4S4]1+ cluster and the SNi = 1/2 Nip 1+ involves the cysteinate that links one cluster site, previously labeled FeD, to the Ni1+, structure and spectral analysis, overview
Ni2+
-
the A-cluster of acetyl-coenzyme A synthase consists of an [Fe4S4] cubane bridged to a [NipNid] centre via C509 cysteinate. The bridging cysteinate, which can be substituted by histidine imidazole, mediates communication between the [Fe4S4] cubane and the [NipNid] centre during the synthesis of acetyl-CoA
Ni2+
-
the active site of ACS, denoted as the A-cluster, is composed of a redox-active [Fe4-S4] cluster and a dinuclear Ni(II)d-Ni(II)p unit. Synthesis of the dinuclear Ni(II)-Ni(I) complex NiII(N,N'-diethyl-3,7-diazanonane-1,9-dithiolate)NiI(S-2,6-dimesitylphenyl)-(triphenylphosphine) as a Ni(II)d-Ni(I)p model of the A-cluster in acetyl CoA synthase
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INHIBITOR
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
IMAGE
cAMP
-
cyclic AMP inhibits the activity and promotes the acetylation of acetyl-CoA synthetase through competitive binding to the highly conserved ATP/AMP binding pocket and restrains SeAcs in an open conformation. cAMP directly binds to the enzyme and inhibits its activity in a substrate-competitive manner. cAMP binding increases SeAcs acetylation by simultaneously promoting Pat-dependent acetylation and inhibiting CobB-dependent deacetylation, resulting in enhanced SeAcs inhibition
CO
-
CO inhibits acetyl-CoA synthesis quite strongly and in a cooperative manner
Ni
-
the authors favor a mechanism in which methylation occurs first to Ni(p0 -) or Ni(pI -)[Fe4S4]+, followed by coordination of CO to form Ni(pII)(CO)(CH3) which breaks one of the S(Nid) bonds (forming the bis square planar Ni(II) species, as if the Ni(d)N2S2 unit were acting as a biological pseudodiphosphine, mimicking behavior common to a bidentate phosphine). The CO-insertion/CH3-migration occurs on one metal forming the trigonal planar Ni(pII)-acetyl intermediate. Finally, addition of thiolate produces the thioester. The authors disfavor the unprecedented bimetallic, CO-insertion/CH3-migration mechanism (both in its diamagnetic and paramagnetic guise) and disfavors CO, CH3+, or thiolate (CoA) binding to the distal Ni. Finally, Ni in the proximal site produces a better catalyst than does Cu
P1,P5-di(adenosine-5)pentaphosphate
-
inhibits ADP formation
Allicin
-
reversible noncovalent specific inhibitor of acetyl-CoA synthetase
diphosphate
addition of 0.25 mM diphosphate results in 50% reduction of the reaction rate
long-chain acyl-CoA compounds
-
e.g. palmitoyl-CoA, stearoyl-CoA and oleoyl-CoA are potent inhibitors of aerobic enzyme form but not from nonaerobic enzyme form
palmitoyl-CoA
-
noncompetitive with respect to both acetate and CoA , inhibits adenosine 5´-tetraphosphate synthesis
additional information
no inhibition by AMP, ADP, ATP or phosphate
-
additional information
-
no inhibition by AMP, ADP, ATP or phosphate
-
additional information
-
antiserum prepared against the aerobic isoenzyme inhibits the homologous enzyme activity but shows no effect on nonaerobic acetyl-CoA synthetase activity
-
additional information
-
aerobic and non-aerobic enzyme form: antibody directed towards one protein precipitated and inhibits the activity of the homologous, but not of the heterologous enzyme
-
additional information
-
when the enzyme is acetylated, it loses about 20% activity compared to the non-acetylated control
-
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ACTIVATING COMPOUND
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
IMAGE
CobB Sir2 protein
-
activation of the acetylated enzyme requires the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide-dependent protein deacetylase activity of the CobB Sir2 protein
-
SIR2 protein
-
short-chain fatty acid activation by acyl-coenzyme A synthetases requires SIR2 protein function
-
SIRT1
-
AceCS1 is completely inactivated upon acetylation and is rapidly reactivated by SIRT3 deacetylation
-
SIRT3
-
AceCS2 is completely inactivated upon acetylation and is rapidly reactivated by SIRT3 deacetylation
-
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KM VALUE [mM]
SUBSTRATE
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
IMAGE
4 - 10
acetate
-
mutant L641P, pH not specified in the publication, temperature not specified in the publication
41
acetate
-
wild-type Acs, pH not specified in the publication, temperature not specified in the publication
11000
acetate
-
mutant G266S, pH not specified in the publication, temperature not specified in the publication
additional information
additional information
-
kinetic parameters of wild type and mutant enzymes at 55°C, overview
-
additional information
additional information
-
kinetics and extent of reduction of the Fe4S4 cubane in the apo-alpha subunit and the Ni-activated a subunit upon exposure to titanium(III) citrate, detailed overview
-
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TURNOVER NUMBER [1/s]
SUBSTRATE
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
IMAGE
1500
acetate
-
mutant L641P, pH not specified in the publication, temperature not specified in the publication
3200
acetate
-
mutant G266S, pH not specified in the publication, temperature not specified in the publication
9400
acetate
-
wild-type Acs, pH not specified in the publication, temperature not specified in the publication
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kcat/KM VALUE [1/mMs-1]
SUBSTRATE
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
IMAGE
0.29
acetate
-
mutant G266S, pH not specified in the publication, temperature not specified in the publication
3.6
acetate
-
mutant L641P, pH not specified in the publication, temperature not specified in the publication
229
acetate
-
wild-type Acs, pH not specified in the publication, temperature not specified in the publication
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Ki VALUE [mM]
INHIBITOR
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
IMAGE
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SPECIFIC ACTIVITY [µmol/min/mg]
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
additional information
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pH OPTIMUM
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
7.5
7.6
8.5
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pH RANGE
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
5 - 9
-
isoform ACS1 shows high levels of activity in a pH range of 7.0-8.0. Isoform ACS2 shows high levels of activity in a pH range of 7.5-8.5. Little activity is detected for either isoform ACS1 or ACS2 at pH levels below 5.0 or above 9.0
5.5 - 8.5
-
pH 5.5: about 60% of maximal activity, pH 8.5: about 50% of maximal activity
6 - 10.5
-
6: about 50% of maximal activity, 10.5: about 60% of activity maximum
6 - 9.7
-
6.0: about 45% of maximal activity, 9.7: about 70% of maximal activity
7.5 - 10
-
7.5: about 50% of maximal activity, 10.0: about 70% of maximal activity
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TEMPERATURE OPTIMUM
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
37
55
60
65 - 70
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TEMPERATURE RANGE
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
15 - 55
-
the enzyme activity is more than 90% of maximum over a broad temperature range between 25 and 40°C, and both recombinant isoform proteins retain more than 60% of their maximum enzymatic activity at temperatures between 15 and 45°C. Isoform ACS1 enzyme activity decreases to 12% of its maximum at 55°C
20 - 50
-
20°C: about 45% of maximal activity, 50°C: about 30% of maximal activity
45 - 75
45°C: about 55% of maximal activity, 75°C: about 50% of maximal activity
45 - 85
-
45°C: about 55% of maximal activity, 85°C: about 60% of maximal activity, AF-ACS2
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pI VALUE
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
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ORGANISM
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
UNIPROT
SEQUENCE DB
SOURCE
acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase 2-like, mitochondrial. Precursor
SwissProt
brenda
specific activity of the enzyme is high in cells grown with limited H2 and CO2 supply. It is low in exponentially grown cells
-
-
brenda
2 enzyme forms Acs1p and Acs2p. Under anaerobic glucose-limited conditions only the ACS2 gene is expressed. During carbon-limited growth on glucose, ethanol, and acetate under aerobic conditions both the ACS1 gene and the ACS2 gene are expressed
-
-
brenda
different isoenzymes are elaborated under aerobic and nonaerobic conditions
-
-
brenda
two immunologically distinct enzyme forms are elaborated under aerobic and under nonaerobic conditions
-
-
brenda
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SOURCE TISSUE
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
SOURCE
marked induction of AceCS1 mRNA and protein during differentiation of 3T3-L1 cells, neither AceCS2 mRNA nor protein is detected in undifferentiated or differentiated 3T3-L1 cells
brenda
-
cells express higher levels of cytosolic acetyl-CoA synthetase ACSS2 under hypoxia than normoxia. Knockdown of ACSS2 by RNA interference in tumor cells enhances tumor cell death under long-term hypoxia in vitro. The ACSS2 suppression slows tumor growth in vivo. Tumor cells excrete acetate and the quantity increases under hypoxia, the pattern of acetate excretion follows the expression pattern of ACSS2. The ACSS2 knockdown leads to a corresponding reduction in the acetate excretion in tumor cells
brenda
-
from Glycine max L. cv. Williams inoculated with Bradyrhizobium japonicum
brenda
-
cells express higher levels of cytosolic acetyl-CoA synthetase ACSS2 under hypoxia than normoxia. Knockdown of ACSS2 by RNA interference in tumor cells enhances tumor cell death under long-term hypoxia in vitro. The ACSS2 suppression slows tumor growth in vivo. Tumor cells excrete acetate and the quantity increases under hypoxia, the pattern of acetate excretion follows the expression pattern of ACSS2. The ACSS2 knockdown leads to a corresponding reduction in the acetate excretion in tumor cells
brenda
-
cells express higher levels of cytosolic acetyl-CoA synthetase ACSS2 under hypoxia than normoxia. Knockdown of ACSS2 by RNA interference in tumor cells enhances tumor cell death under long-term hypoxia in vitro. The ACSS2 suppression slows tumor growth in vivo. Tumor cells excrete acetate and the quantity increases under hypoxia, the pattern of acetate excretion follows the expression pattern of ACSS2. The ACSS2 knockdown leads to a corresponding reduction in the acetate excretion in tumor cells
brenda
the CRISPR/Cas9 system is used to create an ACLY-KO human fibroblast (HF) cell line called C9
brenda
-
cells express higher levels of cytosolic acetyl-CoA synthetase ACSS2 under hypoxia than normoxia. Knockdown of ACSS2 by RNA interference in tumor cells enhances tumor cell death under long-term hypoxia in vitro. The ACSS2 suppression slows tumor growth in vivo. Tumor cells excrete acetate and the quantity increases under hypoxia, the pattern of acetate excretion follows the expression pattern of ACSS2. The ACSS2 knockdown leads to a corresponding reduction in the acetate excretion in tumor cells
brenda
additional information
-
1.5fold-2fold higher activity of the enzyme in the periportal zone of the male rat liver compared with the perivenous zone in the fed state, but not in the fasted/refed state
brenda
additional information
-
no AceCS2 activity is detected in liver. Marked induction of AceCS1 mRNA and protein during differentiation of 3T3-L1 cells, neither AceCS2 mRNA nor protein is detected in undifferentiated or differentiated 3T3-L1 cells
brenda
additional information
no AceCS2 activity is detected in liver. Marked induction of AceCS1 mRNA and protein during differentiation of 3T3-L1 cells, neither AceCS2 mRNA nor protein is detected in undifferentiated or differentiated 3T3-L1 cells
brenda
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LOCALIZATION
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
GeneOntology No.
LITERATURE
SOURCE