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an aromatic aldehyde + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate = an aromatic acid + NADPH + H+ + ATP
an aromatic aldehyde + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate = an aromatic acid + NADPH + H+ + ATP
carboxylic acid and ATP are first bound in the A-domain, wherein the alpha-phosphate of ATP is attacked by the acid, releasing pyrophosphate and forming an acyl-adenylate complex. The CAR enzyme then undergoes a domain shift into a thiolation state where the adenylate is then attacked by the thiol group on the phosphopantetheine arm at the carbonyl carbon, forming a thioester and releasing AMP. The CAR enzyme then undergoes another domain shift where the phosphopantetheine arm is exposed in the R-domain. Finally, the thioester is reduced by NADPH, producing the aldehyde product while returning the phosphopantetheine arm to its thiol form
an aromatic aldehyde + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate = an aromatic acid + NADPH + H+ + ATP
product inhibition by NADP+, adenosine monophosphate, and diphosphate indicates that the binding of substrates at the adenylation domain is ordered with ATP binding first, proposed catalytic mechanism in 4 steps, overview. The first two steps, the relatively unreactive carboxylic acid is activated to form a thioester with the phosphopantetheine arm at the N-terminal adenylation domain (1) ATP and a carboxylic acid enter the active site of the adenylation domain in which the alpha-phosphate of ATP is attacked by an O atom from the carboxylic acid to form an AMP-acyl phosphoester with the release of diphosphate.(2) The thiol group of the phosphopantetheine arm can then attack the carbonyl carbon atom of the AMP-acyl phosphoester intermediate nucleophilically to release AMP and to form an acyl thioester with the phosphopantetheine arm. (3) The phosphopantetheine arm transfers to the C-terminal reductase domain in which (4) the thioester is reduced by NADPH, the aldehyde and NADP+ are released, and the thiol of the phosphopantetheine arm is regenerated in the process
an aromatic aldehyde + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate = an aromatic acid + NADPH + H+ + ATP
the catalytic cycle starts with the activation of the carboxylate substrate with ATP in the A-domain, yielding an AMP-ester intermediate under release of pyrophosphate as the co-product. The active thiol tether of the phosphopantetheinyl moiety then binds the carboxylate, releasing AMP as a leaving group. The resulting thioester is subsequently transferred to the R domain, where it is reduced to the corresponding aldehyde product. The aldehyde is not amenable to enter a second catalytic cycle. The enzyme does not catalyze the overreduction of the aldehyde product to the respective alcohol
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(E)-3-phenylprop-2-enoate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
(E)-3-phenylprop-2-enal + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
?
3-hydroxypropionate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
3-hydroxypropanal + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
-
ir
3-methoxybenzoate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
3-methoxybenzaldehyde + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
?
3-nitrobenzoate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
3-nitrobenzaldehyde + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
?
3-oxo-3-phenylpropanoate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
3-oxo-3-phenylpropanal + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
?
3-phenylprop-2-ynoate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
3-phenylprop-2-ynal + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
?
3-phenylpropionate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
3-phenylpropionaldehyde + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
?
4-hydroxybutyrate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
4-hydroxybutanal + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
-
ir
4-methoxybenzoate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
4-methoxybenzaldehyde + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
?
4-methylbenzoate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
4-methylbenzaldehyde + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
?
5-hydroxypentanoate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
5-hydroxypentanal + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
-
ir
alpha-ketoglutaric acid + NADPH + ATP
? + NADP+ + AMP + phosphate
-
-
-
?
aromatic acid + NADPH + H+ + ATP
aromatic aldehyde + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
?
aromatic carboxylate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
aromatic aldehyde + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
ir
benzoate + NADPH + ATP
benzaldehyde + NADP+ + AMP + phosphate
-
-
-
-
?
benzoate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
benzaldehyde + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
benzoic acid + NADPH + H+ + ATP
benzaldehyde + benzyl alcohol + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
?
butanoate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
butyraldehyde + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
?
cis-aconitic acid + NADPH + ATP
? + NADP+ + AMP + phosphate
-
-
-
?
citric acid + NADPH + ATP
? + NADP+ + AMP + phosphate
-
-
-
?
D-malic acid + NADPH + ATP
? + NADP+ + AMP + phosphate
-
-
-
?
DL-malic acid + NADPH + ATP
? + NADP+ + AMP + phosphate
-
-
-
?
dodecanoate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
dodecanal + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
?
ferulic acid + NADPH + H+ + ATP
ferulic acid + coniferyl aldehyde + coniferyl alcohol + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
not completely reduced
-
-
?
glutarate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
5-oxopentanoate + 1,5-pentanedial + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
-
ir
L-malic acid + NADPH + ATP
? + NADP+ + AMP + phosphate
-
-
-
?
malonate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
3-oxopropanoate + 1,3-propanedial + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
low activity
-
-
ir
octadecanoate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
octadecanal + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
?
octanoate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
octanal + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
?
succinate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
4-oxobutanoate + 1,4-butanedial + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
-
ir
thiophene-2-carboxylate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
thiophene-2-carbaldehyde + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
?
trans-2-phenylcyclopropane-1-carboxylate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
trans-2-phenylcyclopropane-1-carbaldehyde + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
?
trans-aconitic acid + NADPH + ATP
? + NADP+ + AMP + phosphate
-
-
-
?
vanillate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
vanillin + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
-
ir
vanillic acid + NADPH + H+ + ATP
vanillin + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
?
vanillic acid + NADPH + H+ + ATP
vanillin + vanillyl alcohol + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
with Escherichia coli BL21-CodonPlus(DE3)-RP/pPV2.83, in which recombinant Npt is expressed along with recombinant car, vanillic acid is reduced to vanillin and vanillyl alcohol, with vanillin (80%) as the major product. Escherichia coli BL21-CodonPlus(DE3)-RP/pHAT305 (expressing only recombinant Car) reduce only 50% of the vanillic acid starting material, with vanillyl alcohol being the major metabolite. With Escherichia coli BL21-CodonPlus(DE3)-RP/pPV2.83, in which recombinant car is presumed to be in the fully active, phosphopantetheinylated holo form, the rate of reduction of vanillic acid is much faster than that of vanillin to vanillyl alcohol by endogenous Escherichia coli aldehyde dehydrogenase
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
benzoate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
benzaldehyde + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
?
benzoate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
benzaldehyde + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
-
-
-
-
ir
benzoate + NADPH + H+ + ATP
benzaldehyde + NADP+ + AMP + diphosphate
via an adenylated intermediate
-
-
ir
additional information
?
-
pyruvic, isocitric acid, fumaric acid and maleic acid are not substrates for the enzyme
-
-
?
additional information
?
-
CAR enzymes exhibit a broad substrate tolerance for the conversion of organic acids to the respective aldehydes
-
-
-
additional information
?
-
carboxylic acid reductases (CARs) catalyze the two-electron reduction of carboxylic acids to aldehydes. The substrate scope of CARs is broad, encompassing a wide range of aromatic and aliphatic substrates
-
-
-
additional information
?
-
no activity with 2-methoxybenzoate, 4-nitrobenzoate, 2-nitrobenzoate, pyridine-2-carboxylate, 1H-pyrrole-2-carboxylate, and furan-2-carboxylate
-
-
-
additional information
?
-
-
substrate specificity of recombinant hybrid mutant enzymes, overview
-
-
-
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malfunction
lack of posttranslational phosphopantetheinylation of a serine group in the recombinant CAR reduces the activity of recombinantly expressed enzyme
evolution
Aerobic bacteria and fungi typically express ATP- and NADPH-dependent enzymes, which were initially named aryl-aldehyde dehydrogenases (NADP+), but are meanwhile also mostly referred to as carboxylate reductases (CARs). These enzymes are classified as the EC 1.2.1.30 family. CAR sequences of the EC 1.2.1.30 family fall into four distinct subgroups
evolution
CAR phylogenetic analysis and tree
physiological function
-
carboxylic acid reductases (CARs) are valuable biocatalysts due to their ability to reduce a broad range of carboxylate substrates into the corresponding aldehyde products. CARs are multi-domain enzymes with separate catalytic domains for the adenylation and the subsequent reduction of substrates. Inter-domain dynamics are crucial for the catalytic activities of CARs
physiological function
CARs, or aryl-aldehyde oxidoreductases, are Mg2+-dependent multi-domain enzymes that irreversibly catalyze the reduction of carboxylic acids to aldehydes at the cost of one ATP and one NADPH. CARs have a broad substrate scope, encompassing a wide range of aromatic and aliphatic carboxylic acids. The purified enzyme from Nocardia iowensis reduces a broader range of substituted aromatic acids in addition to dicarboxylic acids of the citric acid cycle, resulting in a branding of the aryl-aldehyde oxidoreductase class more broadly as carboxylic acid reductases (CARs)
physiological function
requirement for the presence of a phosphopantetheine transferase for the loading of a phosphopantetheine group onto the CAR enzyme is shown for niCAR. Enzyme CAR prefers substrates in which the carboxylic acid is the only polar or charged group, which gives a useful insight into the substrate specificity of the enzymes. Model development for the prediction of CAR reactivity
physiological function
the phosphopantetheinyl-binding domain is recognized by a phosphopantetheinyl transferase enzyme, which attaches a phosphopantetheinyl residue to a conserved serine. Only upon this post-translational modification, the enzymes become active and are able to engage in the catalytic cycle
additional information
analysis of A-T-R domain architecture with relaxed substrate specificity, structure-function-relationship and potential as biocatalysts for organic synthesis, respectively. Identification of key residues for CAR activity
additional information
structure-function analysis and structure comparisons
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industry
vanillic acid reduction in Escherichia coli BL21-CodonPlus(DE3)-RP/pPV2.85 cells containing car, npt and gdh is complete in 6 h, and is faster than in cells containing only car and/or npt. The availability of Escherichia coli BL21-CodonPlus(DE3)-RP/pPV2.85 expressing holo-Car and Gdh provides a means of generating a range of value-added aldehydes or alcohols of importance in pharmaceutical, food and agricultural industries. Uses of directed evolution and related mutant generating processes, may enable a Car-system with broader substrate specificities and one that is capable of achieving much higher product yields
synthesis
carboxylic acid reductases (CARs) catalyze the conversion of carboxylic acids to aldehydes, which are a valuable class of chemicals for many consumer and industrial applications. CARs generally exhibit broad substrate specificity that encompasses aromatic, aliphatic, and di/tri-carboxylic acids, enabling the development of biosynthetic pathways to a wide array of potential aldehyde products. De novo biosynthesis utilizing CARs have produced industrially relevant products including aromatic aldehydes, fatty and aromatic alcohols, and alkanes. De novo synthetic pathways implementing CARs have enabled the production of sustainable aldehyde products or utilized highly reactive aldehydes as intermediates in the production of chemicals including amines, alcohols, and alkanes. Aromatic aldehydes, such as vanillin, benzaldehyde, and cinnamaldehyde are particularly valuable in the fragrance and flavoring industries and are produced from petroleum feedstocks in large quantities. Recombinant enzyme expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Saccharomyces pombe and an engineered aldehyde-accumulating Escherichia coli strain for de novo production of vanillin from glucose. Aldehydes as reactive intermediates in biosynthetic pathways, overview
synthesis
carboxylic acid reductases are important enzymes in the toolbox for sustainable chemistry and provide specific use as biocatalysts. The reduction of racemic ibuprofen by whole Nocardia iowensis cells gives an enantiomeric excess (ee) of 61.2%, which is attributed to enantioselectivity by niCAR based on kinetic data for its reduction of (S)-(+)- and (R)-(-)-ibuprofen enantiomers
synthesis
the enzyme can be useful for aromatic aldehyde synthesis on industrial level. The product selectivity is an essential asset of the enzyme if it is used for the biocatalytic synthesis of organic molecules on the preparative level
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Venkitasubramanian, P.; Daniels, L.; Das, S.; Lamm, A.S.; Rosazza, J.P.
Aldehyde oxidoreductase as a biocatalyst: Reductions of vanillic acid
Enzyme Microb. Technol.
42
130-137
2008
Nocardia iowensis (Q6RKB1)
brenda
Venkitasubramanian, P.; Daniels, L.; Rosazza, J.P.
Reduction of carboxylic acids by Nocardia aldehyde oxidoreductase requires a phosphopantetheinylated enzyme
J. Biol. Chem.
282
478-485
2007
Nocardia iowensis
brenda
Finnigan, W.; Thomas, A.; Cromar, H.; Gough, B.; Snajdrova, R.; Adams, J.P.; Littlechild, J.A.; Harmer, N.J.
Characterization of carboxylic acid reductases as enzymes in the toolbox for synthetic chemistry
ChemCatChem
9
1005-1017
2017
Mycobacterium marinum (B2HN69), Mycobacterium marinum ATCC BAA-535 (B2HN69), Mycolicibacterium phlei, Mycolicibacterium smegmatis, Neurospora crassa, Nocardia asteroides, Nocardia asteroides JCM 3016, Nocardia brasiliensis, Nocardia iowensis (Q6RKB1), Nocardia otitidiscaviarum, Syncephalastrum racemosum, Trametes versicolor, Tsukamurella paurometabola
brenda
Stolterfoht, H.; Schwendenwein, D.; Sensen, C.W.; Rudroff, F.; Winkler, M.
Four distinct types of E.C. 1.2.1.30 enzymes can catalyze the reduction of carboxylic acids to aldehydes
J. Biotechnol.
257
222-232
2017
Aspergillus terreus (Q0CRQ4), Aspergillus terreus FGSC A1156 (Q0CRQ4), Aspergillus terreus NIH 2624 (Q0CRQ4), Mycobacterium marinum (B2HN69), Mycobacterium marinum ATCC BAA-535 (B2HN69), Neurospora crassa, Nocardia iowensis (Q6RKB1), Segniliparus rotundus (D6Z860), Segniliparus rotundus ATCC BAA-972 (D6Z860), Segniliparus rotundus CDC 1076 (D6Z860), Segniliparus rotundus CIP 108378 (D6Z860), Segniliparus rotundus DSM 44985 (D6Z860), Segniliparus rotundus JCM 13578 (D6Z860)
brenda
Kramer, L.; Le, X.; Hankore, E.D.; Wilson, M.A.; Guo, J.; Niu, W.
Engineering and characterization of hybrid carboxylic acid reductases
J. Biotechnol.
304
52-56
2019
Kutzneria albida, Mycobacterium avium, Mycobacterium marinum (B2HN69), Mycobacterium marinum ATCC BAA-535 (B2HN69), Neurospora crassa, Nocardia iowensis
brenda
Butler, N.; Kunjapur, A.M.
Carboxylic acid reductases in etabolic engineering
J. Biotechnol.
307
1-14
2020
Aspergillus niger, Moorella thermoacetica, Mycobacterium marinum (B2HN69), Mycobacterium marinum ATCC BAA-535 (B2HN69), Mycobacteroides abscessus, Neurospora crassa, Nocardia asteroides, Nocardia iowensis (Q6RKB1), Trametes versicolor
brenda