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betaine aldehyde + NAD+ + H2O
betaine + NADH + 2 H+
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-
-
?
betaine aldehyde + NAD+ + H2O
glycine betaine + NADH + H+
-
-
-
?
4-aminobutyraldehyde + NAD+ + H2O
4-aminobutyrate + NADH
-
-
-
-
?
betaine aldehyde + NAD+ + H2O
betaine + NADH
betaine aldehyde + NAD+ + H2O
betaine + NADH + 2 H+
-
-
-
-
ir
betaine aldehyde + NAD+ + H2O
betaine + NADH + H+
-
-
-
-
?
betaine aldehyde + NAD+ + H2O
glycine betaine + NADH + H+
-
-
Results demonstrate that accumulation of glycine betaine in vivo in the chloroplast in tobacco plants by introducing the BADH gene for betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase from spinach resulted in increased tolerance of growth of young seedlings to salt stress. Furthermore results demonstrate that accumulation of glycine betaine in vivo leads to increased tolerance of CO2 assimilation to salt stress.
-
?
betaine aldehyde + NADP+ + H2O
betaine + NADPH
betaine aldehyde + NAD+ + H2O
betaine + NADH
-
-
-
-
?
betaine aldehyde + NAD+ + H2O
betaine + NADH
-
equilibrium of the reaction strongly favours betaine formation
-
-
?
betaine aldehyde + NAD+ + H2O
betaine + NADH
-
enzyme is induced several-fold by salinization
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-
?
betaine aldehyde + NAD+ + H2O
betaine + NADH
-
synthesis of betaine
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-
?
betaine aldehyde + NAD+ + H2O
betaine + NADH
-
last step in betaine synthesis, a nontoxic or protective osmolyte under saline or dry conditions
-
-
?
betaine aldehyde + NADP+ + H2O
betaine + NADPH
-
-
-
-
?
betaine aldehyde + NADP+ + H2O
betaine + NADPH
-
no activity with NAD+
-
-
?
betaine aldehyde + NADP+ + H2O
betaine + NADPH
-
75% of the activity with NAD+
-
-
?
betaine aldehyde + NADP+ + H2O
betaine + NADPH
-
25% of the maximal activity with NAD+
-
-
?
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A441C
the mutant exhibited almost wild type activity with betaine aldehyde
A441F
the mutant shows no activity with betaine aldehyde
A441I
the mutant shows no activity with betaine aldehyde
A441S
the mutant exhibits slightly reduced activity with betaine aldehyde
A441T
the mutant exhibits clearly reduced activity with betaine aldehyde
A441V
the mutant shows no activity with betaine aldehyde
A441C
-
the mutant demonstrates reduced substrate inhibition by betaine aldehyde
A441I
-
the mutant demonstrates reduced substrate inhibition by betaine aldehyde
C450S
-
the mutant is not inhibited by betaine aldehyde
E103K
-
mutant enzyme has no activity with betaine aldehyde and 4-aminobutyraldehyde
additional information
transgenic expression of the enzyme in Trachypsermum ammi to reduce salinity and drought stresses results in improved seedling fresh weight, plant height, proline content, relative water content, and secondary metabolites content. Recombinant expression in Nicotiana tabacum and Solanum lycopersicum to reduce temperature stress results in improved PSII efficiency, chlorophyll fluorescence, induction kinetics, activity of CAT, SOD and APX, and ascorbate and glutathione contents in tobacco, as well as in improved lipid peroxidation, glycine betaine accumulation, PSII photochemical activity, hydrogen peroxide and superoxide anion radical levels, CO2 assimilation, PSII photochemical activity, hydrogen peroxide, and superoxide anion radical and MDA levels in tomato. Recombinant expression in transgenic walnut plants to reduce drought and salinity stresses results in improved shoot height and survival rate
E103Q
-
Km-values for 4-aminobutyraldehyde increases compared to wild-type
E103Q
-
mutant enzyme is slightly more sensitive to inhibition by NaCl but less sensitive to inhibition by (NH4)2SO4. Glycine betaine activates the wild-type enzyme but not the mutant enzyme. Mutant enzyme shows stronger inhibition by choline compared to wild-type enzyme. Wild-type enzyme shows stronger inhibition by isovaleraldehyde than the mutant enzyme.Mutant enzyme exhibits a broader temperature optimum than the wild-type enzyme. Mutant enzyme appears to be more heat labile than the wild-type enzyme. Mutant enzyme is less stable than the wild-type enzyme in the pH-range 5-11. Mutant enzyme and wild-type enzyme are protected by NAD+ against thermal inactivation in a similar manner. Neither glycine betaine nor NaCl can afford protection against thermal inactivation in the mutant enzyme whereas some protection is observed in the wild-type enzyme
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Weretilnyk, E.A.; Hanson, A.D.
Molecular cloning of a plant betaine-aldehyde dehydrogenase, an enzyme implicated in adaptation to salinity and drought
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
87
2745-2749
1990
Spinacia oleracea
brenda
Weretilnyk, E.A.; Bednarek, S.; McCue, K.F.; Rhodes, D.; Hanson, A.D.
Comparative biochemical and immunological studies of the glycine betaine synthesis pathway in diverse families of dicotyledons
Planta
178
342-352
1989
Amaranthus caudatus, Convolvulus arvensis, Helianthus annuus, Lycium ferocissimum, Portulaca oleracea, Solanum lycopersicum, Spinacia oleracea
brenda
Weretilnyk, E.A.; Hanson, A.D.
Betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase from spinach leaves: purification, in vitro translation of the mRNA, and regulation by salinity
Arch. Biochem. Biophys.
271
56-63
1989
Spinacia oleracea
brenda
Pan, S.M.
Betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase in spinach
Bot. Bull. Acad. Sin.
29
255-263
1988
Spinacia oleracea
-
brenda
Arakawa, K.; Takabe, T.; Sugiyama, T.; Akazawa, T.
Purification of betaine-aldehyde dehydrogenase from spinach leaves and preparation of its antibody
J. Biochem.
101
1485-1488
1987
Spinacia oleracea
brenda
Weigel, P.; Weretilnyk, A.E.; Hanson, A.D.
Betaine aldehyde oxidation by spinach chloroplasts
Plant Physiol.
82
753-759
1986
Spinacia oleracea
brenda
Pan, S.M.; Moreau, R.A.; Yu, C.; Huang, A.H.C.
Betaine accumulation and betaine-aldehyde dehydrogenase in spinach leaves
Plant Physiol.
67
1105-1108
1981
Kandelia candel, Spinacia oleracea
brenda
Hibino, T.; Meng, Y.L.; Kawamitsu, Y.; Uehara, N.; Matsuda, N.; Tanaka, Y.; Ishikawa, H.; Baba, S.; Takabe, T.; Wada, K.; Ishii, T.
Molecular cloning and functional characterization of two kinds of betaine-aldehyde dehydrogenase in betaine-accumulating mangrove Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh
Plant Mol. Biol.
45
353-363
2001
Avicennia marina, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Escherichia coli, Rhizophora stylosa, Spinacia oleracea
brenda
Incharoensakdi, A.; Matsuda, N.; Hibino, T.; Meng, Y.L.; Ishikawa, H.; Hara, A.; Funaguma, T.; Takabe, T.; Takabe, T.
Overproduction of spinach betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase in Escherichia coli. Structural and functional properties of wild-type, mutants and E. coli enzymes
Eur. J. Biochem.
267
7015-7023
2000
Spinacia oleracea
brenda
Incharoensakdi, A.; Hibino, T.; Takabe, T.
Glu103Gln site-directed mutation causes an alteration in physical properties of spinach betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase
J. Biochem. Mol. Biol. Biophys.
6
243-248
2002
Spinacia oleracea
brenda
Yang, X.; Liang, Z.; Wen, X.; Lu, C.
Genetic engineering of the biosynthesis of glycinebetaine leads to increased tolerance of photosynthesis to salt stress in transgenic tobacco plants
Plant Mol. Biol.
66
73-86
2008
Spinacia oleracea
brenda
Niu, X.; Zheng, W.; Lu, B.R.; Ren, G.; Huang, W.; Wang, S.; Liu, J.; Tang, Z.; Luo, D.; Wang, Y.; Liu, Y.
An unusual posttranscriptional processing in two betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase loci of cereal crops directed by short, direct repeats in response to stress conditions
Plant Physiol.
143
1929-1942
2007
Arabidopsis thaliana (Q9S795), Arabidopsis thaliana (Q9STS1), Hordeum vulgare (Q94IC0), Hordeum vulgare (Q94IC1), Oryza sativa (O24174), Oryza sativa (Q84LK3), Solanum lycopersicum, Spinacia oleracea (P17202), Triticum aestivum, Triticum aestivum (Q8LGQ9), Zea mays (Q53CF4)
brenda
Fan, W.; Zhang, M.; Zhang, H.; Zhang, P.
Improved tolerance to various abiotic stresses in transgenic sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) expressing spinach betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase
PLoS ONE
7
e37344
2012
Spinacia oleracea
brenda
Zarate-Romero, A.; Murillo-Melo, D.S.; Mujica-Jimenez, C.; Montiel, C.; Munoz-Clares, R.A.
Reversible, partial inactivation of plant betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase by betaine aldehyde: mechanism and possible physiological implications
Biochem. J.
473
873-885
2016
Spinacia oleracea
brenda
Munoz-Clares, R.A.; Riveros-Rosas, H.; Garza-Ramos, G.; Gonzalez-Segura, L.; Mujica-Jimenez, C.; Julian-Sanchez, A.
Exploring the evolutionary route of the acquisition of betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase activity by plant ALDH10 enzymes: implications for the synthesis of the osmoprotectant glycine betaine
BMC Plant Biol.
14
149
2014
Spinacia oleracea (P17202)
brenda
Golestan Hashemi, F.; Ismail, M.; Rafii, M.; Aslani, F.; Miah, G.; Muharam, F.
Critical multifunctional role of the betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase gene in plants
Biotechnol. Biotechnol. Equip.
32
815-829
2018
Ammopiptanthus nanus, Arabidopsis thaliana (Q9S795), Arabidopsis thaliana (Q9STS1), Glycine max (B0M1A6), Hordeum vulgare subsp. vulgare (A4UUF3), Madhuca longifolia var. latifolia, Oryza sativa Japonica Group (O24174), Oryza sativa Japonica Group (Q84LK3), Pandanus amaryllifolius (A0A2Z2GYT8), Solanum lycopersicum, Spinacia oleracea (P17202), Triticum aestivum (Q8LGQ9), Vallaris sp., Zea mays (Q53CF4)
-
brenda
Niazian, M.; Sadat-Noori, S.A.; Tohidfar, M.; Mortazavian, S.M.M.; Sabbatini, P.
Betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH) vs. flavodoxin (Fld) two important genes for enhancing plants stress tolerance and productivity
Front. Plant Sci.
12
650215
2021
Ammopiptanthus nanus, Atriplex canescens (S4S7H4), Atriplex hortensis (P42757), Hordeum vulgare (Q40024), Spinacia oleracea (P17202), Suaeda liaotungensis (Q8W5A1), Triticum aestivum (Q8LGQ9)
brenda